SEX WORKERS IN BIHAR: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY ANALYSIS WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON BHOJPUR DISTRICT

SEX WORKERS IN BIHAR: HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY ANALYSIS WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON BHOJPUR DISTRICT

21-AUG-ENG 8

RAJIV NAYAN AGRAWAL

ARA----------------------------Sex work, often referred to as prostitution in historical and sociological discourses, has been an integral but controversial element of human societies around the world, influenced by economic, cultural, political and social factors. In India, the practice dates back to ancient civilisations, where it was often linked to religious, artistic and economic spheres. However, over the centuries, it has transformed from a once-respected profession to one fraught with exploitation, stigma and systemic vulnerabilities. Bihar, a state in eastern India with a population of over 124 million as per 2023 projections, exemplifies this evolution. Known for being the cradle of ancient empires, Bihar is grappling with contemporary challenges such as poverty, underdevelopment and human trafficking, and is one of the states in India with the highest incidence of sex work and related crimes. Bhojpur district, located in western Bihar, is a microcosm of these dynamics. With its rural-agrarian economy, historical ties to the Magadh Empire, and proximity to urban centres such as Patna, Bhojpur shows how local socio-economic conditions sustain this trade and lead to the marginalisation of individuals involved in it.

This comprehensive article delves deep into the multifaceted world of sex workers in Bihar, with a special emphasis on the Bhojpur district. It traces the historical journey from ancient times, when courtly women held influence and prestige, to the present day, where poverty, trafficking, and inequality push individuals into the flesh trade. Drawing on information from historical texts such as the Arthashastra and the Rig Veda, sociological studies, contemporary reports from organisations such as the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) and the National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO), and ethnographic research, this narrative unravels layers of exploitation that are intertwined with survival strategies, social stigma, and emerging empowerment efforts. Sex work itself is legal in India, under the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 (ITPA), which bans brothels, pimping and public solicitation but allows individual prostitution, but the ground realities in Bihar reveal persistent challenges. Sex workers face violence, health risks including HIV/AIDS, police harassment and social exclusion, often exacerbated by caste-based discrimination and gender inequalities.

Bhojpur district, with a population of about 2.7 million (2011 census, projected to be about 3.2 million in 2023), is predominantly rural, with agriculture being the mainstay. Its historical significance goes back to ancient times, as it was part of the Shahabad region, an integral part of the Magadh empire. Today, Bhojpur struggles with high poverty rates—its per capita income lags behind the national average—and migration patterns that fuel trafficking. According to NCRB data, Bihar recorded 1,559 human trafficking cases in 2022, a significant portion of which involve sexual exploitation, and Bhojpur has seen sporadic but notable incidents, such as a sex racket busted in Arrah (the district headquarters) in 2019, where two persons, including a woman, were arrested for pushing minors into the trade. More recently, in 2025, the police arrested the main accused of a human trafficking gang in Arrah, exposing the organised networks that operate. These cases underscore the vulnerabilities of Bhojpur, where rural distress, border proximity to Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand, and inadequate infrastructure create fertile ground for exploitation.

The socio-economic structure of Bihar, which includes Bhojpur, is woven with threads of inequality. The state’s per capita income was Rs 54,000 in 2022-23, one of the lowest in India, pushing many to desperate measures. In Bhojpur, agrarian distress—marked by floods, droughts, and landlessness—affects more than 70% of the population dependent on agriculture. Women, especially from scheduled castes (SCs) and other backward classes (OBCs) such as the Nat, Dom, and Bedia communities, are disproportionately affected. These communities have historical ties to entertainment and sex work, a legacy that persists amid modern poverty. Traffickers from Nepal and West Bengal lure vulnerable girls into clandestine operations in urban areas of Arrah or home-based setups in villages. The HIV prevalence rate among sex workers in Bihar is 3.4%, higher than the national average, according to NACO data 2023, and Bhojpur’s dispersed networks contribute to underreported cases. This article not only describes historical changes but also examines mechanisms of entry into sex work, variations in social status, and advocacy efforts. In Bhojpur, NGOs such as Apne Aap Women Worldwide and local groups such as Bhojpur Mahila Kala Kendra work on rehabilitation and skills development, providing rays of hope. Yet, this story is one of resilience amid adversity, demanding systemic reforms to address root causes such as poverty and gender inequality.

Ancient times: Courtier women and social standing in Bihar, insights with historical context of Bhojpur

Ancient times in Bihar, from the Vedic era (circa 1500 BCE) By the medieval limits (around the 8th century AD), prostitution presents a picture of sex work that was far removed from modern stigma. Instead, it was often institutionalised, regulated and, at some level, respected. Bihar, being the centre of the Magadha Empire (6th century BC–4th century AD), played a key role in this narrative. The Rigveda, one of the oldest Indo-Aryan texts, mentions terms such as “jara” (lover) and “jatini” (woman engaging in extramarital affairs for profit), which point to early forms of transactional sex. By the Maurya Empire (321–185 BC), whose capital was at Pataliputra (modern Patna, near Bhojpur), prostitution was a formal profession.

Kautilya’s Arthashastra (4th century BC) lays down detailed rules for “ganikas” (court ladies) who were educated in 64 arts, including music, dance and literature. These women served as entertainers, spies, and cultural ambassadors for the elite. In Bihar, the city of Vaishali—located in present-day Vaishali district, adjacent to Bhojpur—was famous for Amrapali, a famous court lady who accumulated wealth and influence. Buddhist texts such as the Therigatha tell her story: born in a mango grove (hence “Amrapali”), she became the state court lady of Vaishali, owning property and even hosting ambassadors. Her conversion to Buddhism under the influence of Lord Buddha highlights the social mobility possible for elite court women. Amrapali’s legacy resonates in Bhojpur, as the district’s proximity to ancient trade routes along the Ganges facilitated similar practices. Archaeological sites in nearby Chirand (Saran district, adjacent to Bhojpur) reveal evidence of urban settlements where travelers and merchants likely patronized “veshyās” (prostitutes).

The devadasi practice, another aspect, involved dedicating young girls to temples as "servants of the gods". Originating around the 6th century AD, it was prevalent in temple complexes in Bihar such as Bodh Gaya (Gaya district, south of Bhojpur) and Nalanda (near Patna). Initially religious, devadasis performed rituals and dances, but over time, this changed to sexual exploitation under patronage systems. In the historical context of Bhojpur, as part of the ancient Shahabad region, such practices were associated with feudal lords and temples. The Manu Smriti (200 BC–200 AD) began to outlaw prostitution for upper castes, yet it remained a livelihood for lower castes. Social status varied: elite courtesans such as Amrapali enjoyed prestige, property rights, and state taxation (contributing to the treasury), while lower-level workers faced exploitation due to poverty or caste roles.

Reasons for entry in ancient Bihar included economic necessity, caste traditions (for example, some communities specialized in performing arts that were linked to sex work), and temple dedications. In the agrarian landscape of Bhojpur, famines and wars pushed women into the trade. Texts indicate regulated brothels near trade centers, ensuring hygiene and taxation. The legacy of this period is evident in folk traditions in Bhojpur, where stories of courtly women blend with local Bhojpuri culture, influencing music and dance forms even today.

The Medieval Period: Tawaifs and Devadasis in Bihar's Feudal Society, with an emphasis on Bhojpur

The medieval era (8th–18th centuries AD) saw Bihar under the Palas, Senas, Delhi Sultanate, and Mughals, shaping sex work through cultural synthesis and feudalism. Urban centers such as Patna flourished with "tawaifs" (court women skilled in Urdu poetry, Kathak dance, and mujra performances) who entertained the elite. In Bhojpur, part of the Shahabad subdivision under Mughal administration, tawaifs were associated with the nawabi courts of Arrah. Abul Fazl's Ain-i-Akbari (16th century) documents regulated prostitution in Mughal Bihar, where brothels were taxed and supervised by state officials.

The devadasi system continued in temples such as Bodh Gaya, but under Islamic rule, it shifted toward secular entertainment. In Bhojpur, feudal landowners patronized tawaifs during festivals and gatherings, blending Hindu and Muslim influences. Social status remained dichotomous: elite tawaifs wielded influence—some advised rulers or accumulated wealth—while rural sex workers endured poverty-induced exploitation. Caste played an important role; Communities such as the Nat and Bedia in Bhojpur historically engaged in acrobatics and dance, which evolved into sex work under economic pressure.

Mechanisms of entry included widowhood (widows faced social ostracism), family traditions, and economic distress from famines and wars. The feudal structure of Bihar, combined with zamindari oppression in Bhojpur, exacerbated inequalities—women from landless families entered the trade for survival. By the late medieval period, moral stigma grew, viewing ordinary prostitutes as inferior, though elite courtier women maintained respectability. In Bhojpur, the influence of this era is seen in Bhojpuri folk songs, which romanticize courtesans and hint at their vulnerabilities. Let us explain.

Colonial period: Regulation and stigma in Bihar and Bhojpur

British colonialism (18th–20th centuries) redefined sex work as a moral and public health issue, destroying its cultural prestige. The Contagious Diseases Act, 1868, made registration and medical check-ups compulsory for prostitutes near cantonments, to protect soldiers from venereal diseases. In Bhojpur, red-light areas emerged around the military setups of Arrah, subjecting women to invasive scrutiny and harassment.

Colonial morality judged sex work to be “immoral”, demoralizing courtesan patronage. Many court women shifted to ordinary prostitution or the performing arts. The devadasi system was reformed and abolished, driving it underground. In Bihar, famines such as the Bihar famine of 1873 displaced thousands, pushing women from Bhojpur’s villages into urban brothels. Traffickers exploited the vulnerable, with false job promises.

Social status deteriorated sharply; sex workers faced legal harassment and exclusion. However, some in Patna influenced Bhojpuri theatre. In Bhojpur, colonial land reforms accelerated poverty, spurring migration and entry into the trade.

Post-independence and contemporary era: exploitation, rights movements, and realities of Bhojpur

After 1947, the ITPA regulates sex work, but de facto criminalisation persists. Bihar's trafficking cases rose to over 1,500 in 2023 (NCRB preliminary data), 80% of them for sexual exploitation. Bhojpur sees covert operations in Arrah, linked to trafficking to Nepal. Human trafficking arrests in Arrah in 2025 exposed networks supplying to Patna. HIV prevalence among Bihar's sex workers is 3.4% (NACO 2023), Bhojpur's rural settings impede access.

Reasons for entry in Bhojpur include poverty (low income drives migration), trafficking (border vulnerabilities), caste norms (Bedia traditions), and violence. NGOs like Apne Aap provide education; Supreme Court rulings affirm dignity. Still, police raids are targeted at activists, not pimps.

Social status: From stigma to advocacy in Bhojpur

Ancient dignity has given way to modern marginalisation. In Bhojpur, sex workers are slurred, ostracised, children face discrimination. Stigma extends to health access, increasing HIV risks. Advocacies like the Bihar Sex Workers Network press for rights.

Why and how they enter the trade: cycles of exploitation in Bhojpur

Entry is coercive: trafficking (girls sold for Rs 50,000–1 lakh), debt bondage, caste pressure, migration traps. In Bhojpur, 2019 and 2025 exposes deception and family selling.

From courtesans to exploited workers, Bihar’s sex work history, especially in Bhojpur, demands reforms that address poverty and stigma, for a just future.